The crucible steel production process started in the 6th century BC, at production sites of Kodumanal in Tamil Nadu, Golconda in Telangana, Karnataka and Sri Lanka and exported globally; the Chera Dynasty producing what was termed the finest steel in the world, i.e. A 200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama, in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the classical period. The carbon source was bamboo and leaves from plants such as Avārai. [56][57][42] Father of Perum Cheral Irumporai. Together with the Cholas of Uraiyur and the Pandyas of Madurai, the early Cheras were known as one of the three major powers (muventar) of ancient Tamilakam (a macro region in south India) in the early centuries of the Common Era. In this battle, both the kings were killed. [7] Kesavan Veluthat, another prominent historian of south India, uses the term "chief" and "chiefdom" for the Chera ruler and Chera polity of early historic south India respectively. The wife of Chenguttuvan was Illango Venmal (the daughter of a Velir chief).
[27], Archaeology has found epigraphic and numismatic evidence of the Early Cheras. [16] The exact nature of the relationships between the various branches of Chera rulers is somewhat unclear. The portrait coins are generally considered as imitation of Roman coins. The Pandyas were involved in fighting the rising power of the Pallavas, and occasionally they formed alliances with the Deccan kingdoms.…, … powers in the region—namely, the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms—all of which are of unknown antiquity. Hundreds of copper coins, attributed to the Cheras, have been discovered from Pattanam in central Kerala. He also mentions Chenguttuvan's decision to propitiate a temple (virakkallu) for the goddess Pattini (Kannaki) at Vanchi. They again acquired power in the 8th century A.D.
[25], The Cheras are referred to as Kedalaputo (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor Ashoka's Pali edicts (3rd century BCE, Rock Edicts II and XII). [14], The rulers of Venad (the Venad Cheras or the "Kulasekharas"), based out of the port of Kollam in south Kerala, claimed their ancestry from the Perumals. [34] However, the book is not worked into connected history and settled chronology so far. Under his reign, the Chera territory extended from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai (Kerala) on the western coast. [68], The early Chera economy can be described as a predominantly "pastoral-cum-agrarian" based system. ", The Chea Perumal kingdom had alternating friendly or hostile relations with the Cholas and the Pandyas. Various agricultural occupations such as harvesting, threshing and drying are described in the early Tamil texts. One approach proposes that the word is derived from Cheral, a corruption of Charal meaning "declivity of a mountain" in Tamil, suggesting a connection with the mountainous geography of Kerala. Selva Kadumko defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas and the Cholas. Nedum Cheral Athan, famous for his hospitality, gifted Kannanar with a part of Umbar Kattu.